My journey with archaeology began not in a high-tech laboratory, but in the red dust of Jordan’s ancient sites. As a student at Yarmouk University and later as a field archaeologist, I spent years unearthing the tangible remains of our past, working on projects that stretched from the Roman aqueducts of Gadara (Umm Qays) to the Nabataean wonders of Petra. There is a unique, almost indescribable thrill in discovering an ancient coin in a fresh excavation layer. To me, it is never just a piece of metal; it is a tiny, circular portal to a specific year, a specific ruler, and an entire economy that existed thousands of years ago. However, my early experiences teaching field archaeology at sites like Umm Qays taught me a sobering lesson: the most dangerous threat to our history is not time or erosion—it is the modern forger.

In recent years, the challenge of counterfeit ancient coins in Jordan evolved from a niche scholarly concern into a pressing matter of public debate. News of sophisticated forgeries circulating in the local market, and even more distressing reports of original numismatic collections in museums being swapped for replicas, shook the public’s trust. These were no longer just legal cases; they became “matters of public opinion,” threatening the very integrity of our national identity. As a researcher who had already spent years combating the illicit trade of antiquities, I realized that our traditional methods of visual inspection were no longer enough to verify these ancient currencies. We needed a “scientific shield”—a way to let the coinage itself testify to its own age and authenticity.

My pursuit of this scientific solution started during my MA studies at Yarmouk University. I owe a great debt of gratitude to Prof. Ziad Al-Saad, who was the first to truly open my eyes to the gravity of this issue. Drawing from his experience as the former director general of the Department of Antiquities, he shared a profound, first-hand perspective on the true scale of the counterfeiting crisis and the real technical challenges Jordan faced in confronting it. It was through his guidance that my passion was truly ignited; I felt a deep responsibility to fight this phenomenon and protect our heritage. This inspiration drove me to develop a rigorous, multi-tiered authentication protocol, moving from stylistic and physical assessments to investigating manufacturing methods, and finally, a deep dive into the chemical composition of the metal.

To bring this vision to life, I moved to Germany to pursue my PhD at the Technische Universität Berlin. I was incredibly fortunate to conduct my research under the supervision of Prof. Stefan Simon, director of the Rathgen Research Laboratory, which is part of the Staatliche Museen zu Berlin (National Museums in Berlin). Prof. Simon provided unwavering support for this study, opening the doors to the oldest museum laboratory in the world and offering all the laboratory’s resources and cutting-edge facilities to implement and validate my methodology. My project was specifically focused on developing a comprehensive, systematic approach for the detection of the counterfeiting of ancient coins. This methodology is built on a multi-tiered forensic sequence designed to uncover even the most sophisticated modern replicas. The process begins with a meticulous visual inspection to analyze stylistic features, followed by physical assessments such as weight and density measurements. We then move into the heart of the technical analysis: investigating the manufacturing methods to see if they align with ancient striking or casting techniques. The final and most decisive stage involves a deep dive into the chemical composition of the metal. By integrating these layers—from surface aesthetics to elemental DNA—we can reach a point of absolute certainty regarding the coin’s authenticity. The ultimate goal was to apply these rigorous tests to a corpus of coins seized by Jordanian law enforcement and held by the Department of Antiquities (DoA)—the legal guardian of Jordan’s cultural heritage. 

However, I soon faced a major logistical challenge. The administrative and legal requirements for shipping these artifacts from Jordan to Berlin were extremely complex. Progress became possible through a shift in the management approach at the DoA, which prioritized international scientific collaboration to solve such hurdles. With the direct facilitation of the minister of Tourism and Antiquities, Dr. Imad Hijazeen, and the director general of Antiquities, Dr. Fawzi Abu Danah, together with the professional staff at the DoA, it was decided to conduct the study locally. They provided the necessary workspace and support within the DoA facilities in Amman, allowing us to implement the methodology on site and ensuring that the project could move forward effectively. “Progress often requires a shift in perspective.” A practical solution was reached. Rather than moving the coins to the lab, I brought the lab to the coins.

To overcome the daunting logistical challenges, I built a comprehensive “micro-laboratory” from the ground up directly within the main storage facilities of the DoA. This was not merely a setup, but a full-scale mobilization of technical resources that involved the carefully managed transfer of analytical instruments and delicate conservation tools from the Regional Center for Conservation and Restoration in Jerash to the repositories in Amman. This strategic feat transformed a standard storage environment into a high-level scientific hub, ensuring the 65 confiscated ancient coins remained in a secure, controlled space while being subjected to rigorous investigation.

The creation of this laboratory was further empowered by the James A. Sauer Fellowship (2025–2026) from ACOR, which provided the essential funding to equip the site with a sophisticated suite of technology. This included the procurement of high-precision measurement tools, specialized mechanical cleaning equipment, and advanced imaging gear for professional macro-documentation. By building this functional laboratory “from scratch” within the heart of the repositories, I demonstrated that world-class archaeological science can be successfully localized.

The completion of this phase marked a significant milestone; while I meticulously restored the storage area and returned the borrowed equipment to Jerash, the impact of the work remained deeply embedded. The facilities were left physically unchanged, yet they were now enriched with a wealth of invaluable scientific data—a digital and analytical legacy that previously did not exist. The success of this approach led me to the 16th International Conference on the History and Archaeology of Jordan (ICHAJ 16) in Athens, where I presented this “Jordanian Model” of scientific numismatic authentication to global experts.

Today, the project is expanding; I am currently planning to incorporate a diverse range of study samples from various key institutions, including the Jordan Museum and the Jordan Ahli Bank, to broaden the scope of my findings. This ongoing work will culminate in the presentation of my final results at the ASOR Annual Meeting in Chicago in 2026, marking a significant milestone in this international outreach. This project has evolved into a pivotal pillar for heritage preservation in Jordan, providing the definitive evidence needed to distinguish our genuine history from modern fabrications. This work is more than just a PhD; it is a long-term commitment to ensuring that Jordan’s numismatic history remains untarnished. By establishing a comprehensive scientific fingerprint encompassing the stylistic, physical, and chemical attributes of every coin, I am creating a permanent and faithful guardian for our historical truth.

Mohammad Rababah is a PhD candidate in archaeology at Technische Universität Berlin. His research focuses on developing a systematic methodology for detecting ancient coin counterfeiting using non-destructive scientific techniques, advanced imaging technologies, and machine learning. This innovative approach aims to improve the authentication of numismatic collections and support the protection of cultural heritage. He holds a master’s degree in conservation and management of cultural resources and a bachelor’s in archaeology and anthropology from Yarmouk University in Jordan. From early in his academic journey, Mohammad has been deeply engaged in the preservation of Jordan’s archaeological legacy. With over a decade of professional experience, he has worked as a field archaeologist with the German Archaeological Institute in Saudi Arabia and Yarmouk University. His responsibilities have included excavation, artifact analysis, documentation, and heritage conservation. He has also served as a teaching assistant and research associate on several international cultural heritage projects, contributing to education, preservation, and site management. His current research includes collaborations with museums and laboratories in Jordan and Germany, analyzing ancient coin samples to develop a replicable framework for detecting forgeries. Mohammad’s work stands at the intersection of archaeological science and heritage protection, blending technical precision with cultural responsibility.

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During my time as an undergraduate, I enrolled in a course called “Technology in Prehistoric Periods.” At 19, the word “technology” still made me think of computers, but I signed up out of curiosity. Prof. Maysoon Al-Nahar introduced us to the fascinating world of stone tool technology using Neolithic assemblages from Tell Abu Suwwan (ASW) (Fig. 1). That course gave me my first encounter with a real prehistoric stone tool—a moment I still remember vividly. 

Years later, after I completed my master’s research, which focused on the African Middle Stone Age (c. 300,000–30,000 years ago), Prof. Al-Nahar invited me back to the University of Jordan to assist with her ongoing analysis of ASW (Fig. 2). Alongside other students, I helped sort and study thousands of stone artifacts. Among them, one type of flake caught my attention: It showed removals from its ventral surface, a practice not common at most prehistoric sites. These “cores-on-flakes” (COFs) were flakes originally removed from a core for everyday use—but here they were reused as cores themselves, creating more flakes (Fig. 3). It reminded me of repurposing a cookie tin to store needles and thread—but happening thousands of years ago. I decided to investigate this phenomenon further. I applied to the American Center of Research for funding in 2023 and was initially rejected, but I successfully received support in 2025 for my project “Stone Tool Optimization and Recycling Mechanisms in Tell Abu Suwwan (STORM).”

For the STORM project I examined 500 artifacts and worked in collaboration with Ruaa Al-Athamneh, a master of arts student, resulting in a combined dataset of 1,232 artifacts. Research took place at the University of Jordan, using both technological and typological approaches. Our main question was whether these cores-on-flakes represent deliberate recycling or a standard reduction strategy at ASW—a site located just meters from abundant raw material. Based on previous studies, one might not expect recycling at a site with such readily available stone, which made the investigation particularly intriguing.

Our analysis revealed that COFs were mostly created from reduction “waste” rather than formal cores. Size did not matter much. These flakes were selected to produce small, functional flakes—rarely more than two removals per flake. The resulting flakes were tiny, often less than 2 cm long, with minimal shaping or preparation. It seems the people at ASW were focused on quickly producing small cutting tools from existing materials rather than investing much time and effort.

The results show early humans deliberately recycling their stone tools. Even in a landscape where raw material was abundant, the knappers at ASW found ways to make the most of what they already had. Rather than creating a wasteful surplus, they turned old flakes into new tools—demonstrating ingenuity, adaptability, and resourcefulness. In other words, the COFs reflect a deliberate, flexible strategy for meeting everyday needs.

The outcomes of the STORM project are being prepared for submission to a peer-reviewed journal. Finally, I would like to sincerely thank the American Center of Research for funding this project, which made it possible to carry out the research and investigate these aspects of Neolithic life at Tell Abu Suwwan.

Osama Samawi is the 2025–2026 S. Thomas Parker Memorial Fund Fellow. He is a PhD candidate in the Interdisciplinary Center for Archaeology and the Evolution of Human Behavior (ICArEHB) at the University of Algarve, Portugal, where he researches the Middle and Later Stone Age in Mozambique. His work focuses on experimental knapping, lithic techno-economics, and the human-environment nexus during the Middle Stone Age. He is also engaged in research projects on the Middle Stone Age in Jordan, South Africa, and Oman.

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Prior to this field school, my only archaeological experience and exposure came from classes I had taken at the University of Alberta, volunteer work I had done with one of my professors, and travels I had taken with my family. Never once had I stepped foot on a site intending to contribute to its archaeological knowledge—until now. After spending three weeks at the Humayma Archaeological Field School in Jordan under the supervision of Prof. Craig A. Harvey, I have become better equipped to understand the nuanced processes and work involved in modern archaeology. This is especially true for instances in which archaeological surveying unexpectedly uncovers discoveries which require adjustments to the work. Through my time spent at the American Center of Research (ACOR) and at the archaeological site of Humayma, I developed valuable skills in photography, photogrammetry, and writing site reports. These “hard” skills were complemented by the “soft” skills I also cultivated during my time in Jordan. These included establishing positive relationships with the Bedouin people and the Jordanian Department of Antiquities to help protect the site of al-Humayma against looting. All in all, my time spent under the Jordanian sun was both mentally and physically stimulating, and I could not have asked for a better first experience at an archaeological field school.

Before going into the field, I spent a week at ACOR, examining materials found at al-Humayma from previous seasons, which contributed tremendously to my ability to both understand the site and work meaningfully at it. From late Nabataean fine ware to African red slip, and from stone cooking ware to terracotta pipes, it was through these materials and lectures (both formal and informal) that I gained a greater understanding of the site’s history and the artifacts found there. I am a very hands-on person, and I tend to retain information much better when I can see, hold, and feel in real time what it is I am learning about. If it were not for the lessons on these materials, I would not have had the ability to examine objects at al-Humayma so easily and discern a cup base from a perfume bottle rim—a skill I had no idea I could hone in just two weeks!

My fond experiences examining the material artifacts also extended to photography and photogrammetry. As Matthew Vincent, project director at ACOR, would often say, “The future of archaeology is in 3D modules.” Through him, I learned about real-time kinematic positioning (RTK), how to use it in the field to improve the accuracy of data from global navigation satellite systems used in surveys, and the important role it plays in creating 3D models of a site. With the field school’s MA student, Josh Feland, I learned about RealityScan and how to do photogrammetry, from small artifacts to large complexes. I was able to later apply these skills in the field, helping Sophie Tews, one of the field school’s supervisors, with the RTK positioning of a monumental tomb structure and an unknown “latrine” structure, which was used to help with photogrammetry of those features. It is incredible to see just how technology has improved our ability to do archaeological work, both in surveying and excavations. These are skills I will continue to refine and use. As I reflect on my three weeks in Jordan, I see that my biggest accomplishments, without a doubt, are developing my photographic techniques, learning how to use software for 3D scanning and modelling, and honing my ability to assess a site and take in-depth notes. Although I had some prior experience with photography and 3D scanning, I was able to learn more about the techniques involved.

Before the field school, I would not have known the importance of shooting photos in aperture mode for photogrammetry or the proper way to take site photographs to use as references for future surveying and excavation. As well, I found that, by the end of the last week, I was able to create in-depth notes which accurately identified and captured key features and aspects of the sites and complexes I worked on. As I continue my education and work as a field archaeologist in CRM, I see these skills becoming invaluable for helping determine whether an area is an archaeological site and quickly assessing specific elements of said site, whether it was a religious complex, a burial feature, or simply a midden/garbage dumping ground. Most especially, my ability to do all of this on my own with little to no supervision — to have my director feel confident in my ability to be unsupervised and produce good work — has been the most profound accomplishment for me. This field school has set me up for success for a future in archaeology by providing me invaluable experience working hands-on with materials, applying theory from class and volunteer work in a practical way, and, most especially, helping confirm that archaeology, with a specialization in heritage management, is the career I see myself pursuing wholeheartedly

Rachel Carroll, Jennifer C. Groot Memorial Fellow (2025-2026), is a fourth-year Combined Honors Undergraduate student at the University of Alberta who is also completing academic certificates in Archaeology and International Learning. Her focus throughout her degree has been on researching how people form and reinforce identities through cultural practices during turbulent and transitional periods.

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I had the privilege of staying at the American Center of Research during the months of May, June, and July of 2025 and conducting research on depictions of Midian/Madyan in the Hebrew Bible and the Qur’an. Historically, Midian/Madyan is believed to have been located in the northwestern Arabian Peninsula, with its northernmost boundaries around Jordan’s Gulf of Aqaba and its capital in Saudi Arabia’s Tabuk region. In the Hebrew Bible, Midian represents the place where the Prophet Moses is said to have escaped and settled, as well as where the Israelites lived between their exodus from Egypt and arrival in Canaan. The Hebrew Bible is so rich with allusions to God and Midian that since the nineteenth century, a school of biblicists have argued that the Israelites first adopted their conception of their deity from a people who lived there, in what has become known as the Midianite-Kenite Hypothesis. As the idea is based on a scholarly “hunch” rather than a substantial body of evidence, it remains a hypothesis. The biblical allusions are rich, but the archaeological record on Midian has only recently emerged and has yet to reveal anything about the land’s religious landscape (Fig. 1). Naturally, any relevant literature from the Semitic milieu of late antiquity comes as a welcome source of insights. 

Here we come to the Qur’an. Although certainly beyond the secular paradigm of the Midianite-Kenite Hypothesis, the Qur’an lends weight to the idea that in Madyan there was a precedent for Israelite religious thought. While the Qur’an shares with the Hebrew Bible the account of the Prophet Moses meeting his father-in-law in Madyan, it also features a unique account of a Prophet Shu’aib, who is portrayed as having preached there centuries before the Prophet Moses or the Israelites arrived. Whereas the Hebrew Bible calls the Prophet Moses’s father-in-law “the Priest of Midian” without saying anything about this priest’s religion, the Qur’an conveys a continuity of beliefs between him and his regional predecessor, the Prophet Shu’aib. Although the Qur’anic style generally lends to thematic continuity between prophets, it would appear that the Qur’an is specifically highlighting Madyan’s regional religious significance; not only does Madyan account for one of the few place names in the scripture, but it is also the only land in which the stories of both an “Arabian” and a “biblical” prophet—Shu’aib and Moses, respectively—take place. This significance might not have been lost on the Qur’an’s 7th-century audience in the neighboring Hejaz, for whom Madyan was a cultural-spatial bridge between them and Palestine. One example of how the Qur’an impresses religious significance upon Madyan is how it insists on its location for Mount Sinai. The Qur’an insisted on a Midian location despite the belief current since the 4th century that this mountain was located in Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula, an association cemented by Justinian I’s construction of the St. Katherine’s Monastery there. Mount Sinai’s location is just one case in which the Qur’an subtly weighs in on important debates among biblicists. 

I am honored to have resided and conducted research at ACOR (Fig. 2). It is a place of gathering for archaeologists and enthusiasts of the region’s history. The library has for decades facilitated research that draws from diverse primary and secondary sources, putting archaeological findings in conversation with religious scriptures and their commentaries. Most importantly, ACOR is the home of a cohort of researchers and scholars from a range of disciplines, all converging on their interest in the region. I am honored to be the first ACOR fellow since 2002 to be awarded a grant focused on Qur’anic research and hope to see more projects like it in the future. I would like to extend my warmest gratitude to my fellowship grantors, Dr. Pierre and the late Dr. Patricia Bikai, for their generous patronage of my research, as well as ACOR’s staff for facilitating such a comfortable, welcoming stay. 

Kareem Rosshandler was the 2025–2026 recipient of the Pierre and Patricia Bikai Fellowship. He is a PhD student at Emory University in the fields of Islamic studies and comparative religions. Prior to resuming his academic career, he served as a researcher and project manager at the West Asia-North Africa Institute in Amman, Jordan. His focus areas included human security, international trade, and refugee inclusion. He received his BA from the George Washington University and his MA in Middle Eastern studies from the University of Chicago.

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When it comes to understanding religion in Iron Age Jordan (ca. 1200–550 BCE), terracotta figurines offer one of our most abundant and expressive forms of archaeological evidence. These three-dimensional artistic objects fit readily into one hand (typically 10–15 cm), apparently crafted for personal use. At the same time, they appear across a range of social settings, from the household, to tombs, to temples and other public settings of formal worship. 

As in periods before and after the Iron Age, figurines take the form of animals (most often horses and bulls but sometimes others), human beings (female and male), and inanimate objects (for example, furniture). While female figurines from the southern Levant have dominated scholarly attention for decades now, much less consideration has gone to their proportionally less frequent male counterparts. For Iron Age Jordan, male figurines are well attested, numbering at least 65 published examples.

The male figurines have much to tell us about the religious beliefs and practices of people living during the Iron Age. Yet basic questions remain debated: What do these figurines represent? How did people use them in ritual? How can the male figurines help us understand relationships between household religion and other socioreligious realms in Iron Age Jordan? 

With these questions in view, I focused the research of my ACOR-CAORC Postdoctoral Fellowship for spring 2025 on male figurines from Iron Age Jordan. I have sought to interpret the male figurines based on their archaeological contexts, physical features, and comparative artistic evidence. What I found was a wide variety among the male figurines in terms of their form and subject matter, and their apparent ritual functions, along with clear indicators of the impact of the region’s political kingdoms on household religion during Iron Age II (ca. 950–550 BCE). Here are some preliminary insights with illustrating examples. 

Gods and Men: The Household and the Palace

Nearly half the identifiable male figurines survive only as head fragments (sometimes including the upper torso). These are variously hand-modeled or pressed from a mold. Male figurines lacking headgear and constructed in a variety of styles likely represent human subjects, perhaps as images of venerated human ancestors or as votive objects representing living human worshipers or embodying concerns of daily life.^[1]  

A rare instance of a fully preserved male figurine is the “traveler” from Tall as-Sa‘idiyyah in the Jordan Valley (Fig. 1). This pillar-style figurine depicts a bearded male wearing a thick headband or turban, a long-sleeved mantle, and a backpack thrown over his left shoulder, containing a large round object that James Pritchard interprets as a pilgrim flask (Pritchard 1968). This figurine’s domestic find context (dated to the mid-8^th century BCE) and the accompanying specialized objects are consistent with its place in household worship, the male figurine likely serving as a votive representing a senior male of the household (cf. Pritchard 1968, 26, 29). 

In contrast to that depiction of full clothing, six unfortunately headless figurines from several sites in Jordan portray nude males (Daviau 2022, 261, n. 7). An artistic portrayal placing nude male figures into a broader visual context is a relief frieze decorating a ceramic krater from Iron II Tall Nimrin in the east Jordan Valley (Flanagan et al. 1992). It shows a procession of nude males taking part in a fertility ritual (Dornemann 1995). Based on this comparison, nude male figurines might have served in communal or household rituals concerned with male fertility. At the same time, a stone statue of a nude male figure at roughly contemporary Khirbat al-Mudayna, in the Wadi Thamad in northern Moab, offers a presumably honorific portrayal of either an elite individual (Daviau 2022, 261) or possibly a deity. Nudity occurs as a regular motif in artistic depictions of female deities in the Levant and broader West Asia (Bloch-Smith 2014; Darby 2014, 330–338, 398–406). Given the ethnographic and comparative literary evidence for multiple representations and functions, even for the same figurine (Moorey 2003), the nude males might have portrayed a deity or supernatural being while also embodying a concern for male reproduction addressed in ritual.

A high deity is more clearly in view among figurine head fragments from Amman and locations affiliated with other material culture. Examples from outside a “palace” building at the Amman Citadel (Zayadine et al. 1989, 362), from Tall Jawa 10.5 km south of Amman (Daviau and Dion 1994), and from farther south at Tall Jalul (Younker et al. 1996) wear a form of the atef crown deriving ultimately from Egyptian tradition and appearing in Iron II stone statuary as the emblem of the leading god of the Ammonite kingdom (Abou-Assaf 1980; Daviau and Dion 1994; Burnett 2016; 2024). The Tall Jawa example’s discovery inside a domestic building, along with other cultic objects (Daviau 2003, 136–137), indicates this figurine’s function as a terracotta image of the Ammonite chief deity, perhaps a replica of larger stone statues at the capital, within domestic ritual at this outlying location. The domestic use context for this example and likely the one from Tall Jalul (Daviau 2001, 201) shows that the iconographic system supporting the Ammonite monarchy was incorporated into that of the family-based realm of domestic worship. 

Messengers and Mediating Figures: Houses, Tombs, and Public Worship Places

More than a dozen other male figurine heads wear various forms of a conic or pointed cap resembling the headgear of horse and rider figurines so well attested for the Amman Citadel and nearby sites and from the Jordan Valley (Fig. 2). The fully preserved horse-and-riders tend to bear decoration of black and white painted lines and other designs on their headgear and clothing. The uniform thus portrayed, along with the headgear’s resemblance to a pointed helmet (variously depicted for warriors in multiple ancient Near Eastern battle scenes; Dornemann 1983, 137–138), suggests a military association for these figures, although they tend to appear without weapons or other military equipment. A messenger figure might thus be the implication, especially considering the quality of swiftness the horse represents. In any case, most of the population would not have had horses, and these widely attested figurines likely reflect royal military imagery and its impact on household and family religion.  

The two-headed horse carrying a rider excavated at Tall Damiyya in the Jordan Valley (Petit and Kafafi 2016) suggests a depiction of supernatural beings. The discovery of these hybrid depictions (combining zoomorphic and anthropomorphic figures) in a worship sanctuary, amid fragments of a cult stand (Petit and Kafafi 2016), and in tombs (Harding 1945; 1950) would be consistent with imagery of divine messengers mediating between higher deities and their living and deceased human worshipers. Like the atef-crowned figurines, the horse-and-riders show the institution of the monarchy to have shaped conceptions of divine-human relationships in household, mortuary, and public religious life, as well as the connections among these societal realms on the Ammonite plateau and the Jordan Valley during Iron Age II. 

Another type of mediating figure appears in male figurines attached to the entrances of ceramic miniature shrines, thus marking and guarding spatial boundaries. The best-preserved example was excavated in the Iron II temple at Khirbat Ataruz, overlooking the Dead Sea (Ji 2012, pl. 47). It features two male figurines flanking the shrine’s entrance, each with a bare upper body and holding a small animal. These guardian figures’ positioning at the threshold indicates their liminal status, mediating the boundary between divine and human, sacred and profane. 

Conclusions: Variety and Range among the Male Figurines

While questions remain, the array of male figurines yields many insights into the religion of Iron Age Jordan. Human beings and their life concerns, deities, and mediating supernatural beings find representation, with some figurines perhaps combining more than one referent. In their ritual functions, the male figurines serve as propitiatory votives, stand-ins for human worshipers, and miniature divine images, and serve other attention-focusing roles, for example, in mediating divine-human interaction. Male figurines reflect personal and family concerns such as reproduction, perpetuation of the household lineage, and care for the deceased. Other examples, such as the atef-crowned heads and horse-and-rider figurines, signal the monarchy’s relevance to the household’s general wellbeing. Continuing research and new archaeological discoveries hold promise for refining these preliminary results. What is clear is that these well-attested artistic objects embody a variety of representations, cultic functions, and socioreligious circles.

References

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Burnett, J. S. 2016. “Egyptianizing Elements in Ammonite Stone Statuary: The Atef Crown and Lotus.” In R. A. von Stucky, O. Kaelin, and H.-P. Mathys (eds.), 9 ICAANE: Proceedings of the 9th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East (June 9–13, 2014, University of Basel). Volume 1: Traveling Images, 57–71. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.

Burnett, J. S. 2024. The Amman Theater Statue in Its Iron Age Contexts, with contributions by R. Gharib and D. F. Parker. AASOR 75. Alexandria, VA: American Society of Overseas Research.

Bloch-Smith, E. 2014. “Acculturating Gender Roles: Goddess Images as Conveyors of Culture in Ancient Israel.” In I. J. de Hulster and J. M. LeMon (eds.), Image, Text, Exegesis: Iconographic Interpretation and the Hebrew Bible, 1–18. The Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies 588. New York: Bloomsbury.

Darby, E. 2014. Interpreting Judean Pillar Figurines: Gender and Empire in Judean Apotropaic Ritual. Forschungen zum Alten Testament 69. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.

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Younker, R. W., L. T. Geraty, L. G. Herr, Ø. LaBianca, and D. Clark. 1996. “Preliminary Report of the 1994 Season of the Madaba Plains Project: Regional Survey, Tall al-‘Umayri, and Tall Jalul Excavations (June 15 to July 20, 1994).” Andrews University Seminary Studies 34(1): 65–92.

Zayadine, F., J.-B. Humbert, and M. Najjar. 1989. “The 1988 Excavations of the Citadel of Amman, Lower Terrace, Area A.” Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 33: 357–363.

^[1] See the list of possible representation and uses of figurines Christopher Tuttle has developed, building on the model of Peter Ucko and Mary Voigt (Tuttle 2009: 246). 

Joel Burnett is a professor of religion (Hebrew Bible/Old Testament studies) at Baylor University. His research centers around the history and religion of Iron Age Israel and Transjordan. His most recent publications include “The Persistence of El in Iron Age Israel and Ammon” (pp. 297–330 in Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Honor of P. Kyle McCarter Jr. ANEM 27, ed. C.A. Rollston, S. Garfein, and N. H. Walls. Atlanta: SBL, 2022), “Geochemical Characterization of Jordanian Basalts Using Portable X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry and Sourcing of the Amman Theater Statue” (coauthored with Carolyn D. Dillian, Aktham Oweidi, and Romel Gharib, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 46 [2022]: 103720), and The Amman Theater Statue in Its Iron Age Contexts (with contributions by Romel Gharib and Don F. Parker. Annual of ASOR 75. Boston: ASOR 2024).

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As an intern with the American Center of Research (ACOR) from September to October 2024, I had the opportunity to contribute to the National Cultural Heritage Property Database of The Kingdom of Jordan, an initiative to preserve Jordan’s cultural heritage. Known less formally as the National Inventory Project, it centers around creating a comprehensive digital record of Jordan’s movable cultural artifacts, aiming to protect these items from illicit trafficking and the loss of heritage and narrative. Through detailed cataloging and advanced software, the National Inventory Project has become an essential tool in heritage preservation, aligning with international standards set by UNESCO, the International Council of Museums (ICOM) Red Lists of Cultural Objects at Risk, and the Hague Convention.

As part of my role, I created a report examining the National Inventory’s fundamental purpose in preserving Jordan’s cultural identity, heritage, and historical narratives for the future. I had the unique opportunity to delve into the theoretical aspects of heritage preservation as part of the National Inventory Project. My primary responsibility was to draft a report analyzing how this inventory functions as a vital tool for preserving Jordan’s cultural heritage. Rather than focusing solely on the technicalities of cataloging, my work centered on examining the broader theoretical and legal frameworks that underlie this preservation effort. I also explored how the inventory’s work combats the illegal trade of cultural assets by establishing clear ownership and provenance records, hindering traffickers from exploiting these valuable resources.

The most fascinating aspect of this project was learning about the international legal conventions that highlight the importance of national inventories. I enjoyed exploring how ACOR’s approach aligns with UNESCO guidelines and the ICOM Red Lists to create a secure, accessible, and detailed database. This knowledge enhanced my understanding of how global networks and local efforts converge to support heritage preservation. I thoroughly enjoyed learning how technology can play a pivotal role in preserving cultural heritage. Axiell’s software, for instance, allowed us to document and manage artifacts in both Arabic and English, making the inventory accessible to a broader audience. This multilingual approach is critical to ensuring that local communities are engaged in the preservation process, which fosters a sense of shared ownership and pride in Jordan’s cultural legacy.

I was particularly fascinated by ACOR’s innovative approach to organizing artifacts within the National Inventory. Their meticulous cataloging system preserves the details and stories behind each item. It can serve as a template model for other countries, especially those in post-conflict neighboring regions or areas at risk of future conflict. This inventory framework ensures that cultural heritage can be safeguarded systematically, by means of a resilient digital archive that protects a nation’s identity amid instability.

Lastly, I was interested in learning how digital heritage preservation is becoming the next crucial step in archaeology and cultural heritage. Digitizing artifacts not only preserves their tangible heritage but also captures the intangible aspects of identity and memory that can be carried on to the next generations. By transforming physical heritage into a digital format, institutions like ACOR ensure that cultural narratives and historical connections endure, even as physical objects face threats from time, conflict, or environmental factors.

This internship gave me valuable insights into digital heritage preservation. It also prepared me with practical experience in managing inventories and documenting culture. This participation reinforced my belief that heritage preservation can strengthen national identity and foster cross-cultural understanding. Working with ACOR on this critical project was an educational and fulfilling experience. I am proud to have participated in this research opportunity to help preserve Jordan’s cultural heritage.

Roma Aatifi, originally from Kabul, Afghanistan, is pursuing a master’s degree in sustainable cultural heritage at the American University of Rome. Her thesis focuses on the preservation and reconstruction of cultural heritage in Afghanistan. Following research conducted with the ACOR-coordinated project at Karak, she chose to seek an internship at ACOR because she could see parallels between the challenges Jordan experiences regarding cultural heritage and those faced in Afghanistan.

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I completed an internship at the American Center of Research over the course of two weeks during December, 2024. It was a great and very valuable experience, as I was able to work with archival documentation, as well delve briefly into cultural heritage databases. What I gained the most from this experience was learning various methods of archiving. My primary task involved organizing and rearranging a collection of old maps of Jordan, focusing on significant regions and archaeological sites. I sorted these maps by code and site or region name, verifying their placements through a database to ensure accuracy. Once these were organized in drawers, I entered them into a database, documenting details such as code numbers, the number of copies, and their locations. This process not only helped me refine my organizational skills but also deepened my understanding of Jordan’s topography and key historical sites.

Additionally, for a short time I worked with the National Cultural Heritage Property Database of The Kingdom of Jordan project. Through participating in the National Inventory Project, as it is also called, I learned about the use of databases such as Axiell and engaged in interesting discussions about Jordan’s history and culture. I also explored how pottery artifacts are meticulously catalogued, and I assisted in researching different types of databases and digital preservation methods used by other countries to preserve their cultural heritage. 

The most valuable aspects of this experience for me, however, were the insightful conversations I had with ACOR’s various staff members. Whether the staff were focused on photo archiving, database management, or library resource management, my discussions with them provided important insights into topics ranging from archaeology and history to their daily job duties, educational backgrounds, and advice on how to pursue a career in this field. Overall, it was a rewarding and unforgettable experience!

Zain Fanik is currently a senior at Georgetown University studying Culture and Politics and concentrating on cultural anthropology. She has taken a variety of courses on ethnography, history, cultural studies, literature, and museology. She is also pursuing a certificate in Arab regional studies, focusing on the inclusion outcomes of Palestinian Christians in the West Bank. She had the opportunity to intern with ACOR as a recipient of Georgetown’s Student Experience Fund, which supports research and internships for students. After earning her bachelor of science in foreign service, she plans to pursue a master’s degree in archaeology or heritage studies and aspires to build a career in this field, focusing on researching and preserving beautiful cultural heritage.

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For historians of the Middle East, medieval documents and manuscripts are integral resources to better understand the social and intellectual milieu of their objects of study. Islamic manuscript archives and repositories are often quite challenging to access; an even greater challenge is the ability to read and analyze the documents themselves. For the past eight years, and during my 2024 ACOR-NEH Fellowship, I have spent a significant amount of time pursuing documentary and textual research at the Center for Documents and Manuscripts (CDM) at the University of Jordan while finishing my book project, Blasphemy (Sabb al-Rasūl) as a Legal Category in Early and Medieval Islamic History. Located within several blocks of ACOR, the CDM contains more than 30,000 manuscripts from the Fatimid, Ayyubid, Mamluk, and Ottoman eras. In addition to preserving physical manuscripts, for the past thirty years the CDM has also pursued another important project: digitizing manuscript collections from across the Levant and North Africa. With the onset of the Arab Spring and Syrian civil war, and now with ongoing violence in Lebanon, many of these regional collections are either no longer accessible or entirely destroyed, making the CDM’s digitized collection all the more an indispensable resource for researchers. 

Colleagues in other fields often ask me how I read and analyze manuscripts and documentary records in order to deduce historically relevant information. How does one determine a manuscript’s date of creation, scribal history, and authorship? What codicological clues does one use, in terms of the document’s material construction, handwriting, and illumination in order to date a manuscript and determine whether it is authentic? I address these questions in a three-part series. In my first Insights essay, I addressed the material construction of Ottoman codices and how historians examine certain aspects of medieval book construction in order to date a manuscript. In my second, I examined how researchers use calligraphic script identification and manuscript illumination to deduce the age and geographic origins of a manuscript, with special focus on the Mamluk era. In both of the aforementioned essays, I focused on books as historical objects, which often contain a plethora of clues that allow us to pursue accurate dating. But what happens when one only has a fragment of a page or a documentary record that is not part of a book? Such a scenario is far more common, especially in eras predating the Mamluk Empire, such as the Ayyubid and Fatimid eras. In this third installment, I shall address how historians use handwriting, text format, and material construction of fragments to estimate the age of a manuscript, with special attention to the Ayyubid and Fatimid eras.

Dating Documents Based on Material Construction

An important clue when attempting to identify the era and region in which a document was produced is examining the material construction. In Figure 1, the first attribute that jumps out to a trained historian is the fact that the artifact consists of porous and fibrous cross-laid strips. This texture indicates that the artifact is not made from paper, but rather from papyrus. Papyrus strips are paper-like, self-adhering sheets made from the stalk of the papyrus plant, which is indigenous to Africa, including Egypt. Papyrus was used as a material upon which to write in a variety of local languages in Egypt from about 3000 BCE to the 10^th century CE. After Alexander the Great seized Egypt from the Achaemenid Empire in the 4^th century BCE, Greek emerged as the primary written language of government administration, literature, and private document production. It remained so during the Ptolemaic, Roman, and Byzantine eras and was only replaced with Arabic in the 7^th century, after the Arab conquest. We also know that after the 10^th century CE, paper become the predominant material for writing in North Africa (for more on this topic, see Khan 2006; Goldberg and Krakowski 2019). Hence, based on the fact that the document is written on papyrus and that it is written in Arabic, we can deduce that it was most likely produced between the 7^th and 10^th centuries in Egypt. It is also possible that the papyrus was produced in Egypt for export and the document was written elsewhere.

Dating Documents Based on Vocabulary and Format

The vocabulary used in a document can also provide clues to confirm usage and dating, especially if patterns exist across a specific genre. The document in Figure 2 is a Fatimid Islamic iqrār, or security agreement. In the Fatimid and Ayyubid eras, Islamic security agreements were written using a very specific battery of formulary in the same sequence and with specific word placement on the page, similar to a modern-day administrative form (for more on this document type see Müller 2008; Lufti 1983). 

In the aforementioned iqrār, we see that the first line constitutes the basmala, or invocation to seek blessings from God. The block of text then begins with the word ‘aqarra’ , followed by specific formulary identifying the litigants, the amount owed, and payment plan, followed by a promise to pay off said debt on the part of the debtor (binding debt clause). On the last line of block text, the date of the agreement is recorded in the bottom left corner, followed by two short lines in the bottom right corner identifying the witnesses (witness confirmation clause), albeit now faded or erased. We know from other social history sources that iqrār documents in this specific format were not produced until the Ayyubid era (Ackerman-Lieberman 2007; Thung 1996). Hence, moving back to Figure 1 above, we are now able to observe some additional clues in dating our text: 1) that the document begins with the basmala and the word ‘aqarra’, the identifying formulary for iqrār documents; and 2) that the document appears to have the date written by the scribe on the last line in the far left corner, albeit faded to the point of partial legibility, as Rajab AH 312, which converts to 924 CE. Bringing together all of the aforementioned evidence on document construction and document vocabulary, we can say that the facts suggest without internal contradiction that the document is an Ayyubid or early Fatimid iqrār record produced toward the beginning of the 10^th century CE. 

In the document in Figure 2, the text and lines are straight and somewhat compressed, with very little space in between each line. One also can observe several areas where erasure and possible re-drafting has been attempted, such as the witness confirmation section on the bottom right corner. On the back of the document is also another unrelated draft that appears to be writing practice of some sort. This is quite different from, for example, the document in Figure 3.

In this Fatimid-era document, the text is curvilinear. We also observe ample spacing with no visible erasures and no drafted documents on the back. We know from the patterns that we have observed in studying manuscript genres from the Ayyubid and Fatimid eras that texts intended for public presentation or for an audience with the caliph and his court were often written in curvilinear script with ample spacing and in specific calligraphic styles. Such is the case in this letter in Figure 3, which was meant to be read to the Fatimid caliph (for more on this topic, see Rustow 2020). Writing materials were expensive and hence needed to be used economically, so documents written for internal administrative purposes, such as court records, were often written in small and economically spaced script, with both sides of the paper used (with no necessary link between the record written on the recto and the record written on the verso) (for a detailed analysis of handwriting and text placement in this context, see Rustow 2019). Therefore, in this case, we can deduce that the document in Figure 2 was likely either a court record or a scribe’s draft not intended for public display or performative reading. 

Manuscript fragments and individual documentary records, not just books, can be decoded and analyzed for clues that tell us more about their content and the social environment in which they were constructed. Altogether, the material construction of a manuscript fragment, coupled with an awareness of the typical vocabulary, format, writing style, and spacing of specific genres, provide clues to the historian regarding the date and geographic origin of a medieval document or manuscript. Such fragments, when studied together with other primary sources, are enormously valuable resources for learning more about medieval societies. 

References

Ackerman-Lieberman, Phillip Isaac. 2007. “A Partnership Culture: Jewish Economic and Social Life Seen through the Legal Documents of the Cairo Geniza.” PhD dissertation. Princeton University.

Khan, Geoffrey. 2006. Arabic Legal and Administrative Documents in the Cambridge Genizah Collections. Oxford: Archaeopress.

Goldberg, Jessica and Eve Krakowski. 2019. “Introduction: A Handbook for Documentary Geniza Research in the Twenty-First Century.” Jewish History 32: 115–130.

Lutfi, Huda. 1983. “A Study of Six Fourteenth Century Iqrārs From al-Quds Relating to Muslim Women.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 26(3): 246–294.  

Müller, Christian. 2008. “Acknowledgement.” In Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, edited by Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, and Everett Rowson, < http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_0166 >. Leiden: Brill.  

Rustow, Marina. 2019. “Fatimid State Documents.” Jewish History 32(2/4): 221–277.

Rustow, Marina. 2020. The Lost Archive: Traces of a Caliphate in a Cairo Synagogue. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Thung, Michael. 1996. “Written Obligations from the 2^nd/8^th to the 4^th/10^th Century.” Islamic Law and Society 3(1): 1–12. 

Sarah Islam’s research focuses on the social and intellectual history of Islamic criminal law, and on how relations between Muslims, Jews, and Christians in the medieval context affected the development of jurisprudence and legal institutional norms across all three communities, despite internal polemics often arguing otherwise. Her first book project, Blasphemy (Sabb al-Rasūl) as a Legal Category in Early and Medieval Islamic History, examines the evolution of blasphemy as a legal category among capital crimes in Islamic legal history. Her research has been supported by the Charlotte Newcombe Foundation, Social Science Research Council, Fulbright Program, and the American Center of Research, where she has been an ACOR-CAORC Predoctoral Fellow (2015 – 2016) and ACOR-CAORC Postdoctoral Fellow (2022 – 2023). Her academic work has been published by Sage, Brill, and Oxford University Presses.

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My name is Dima Nafez Amin Harb, and I am a cultural resources management and conservation graduate from the University of Jordan, the valedictorian of my major. Throughout my education, my professors would always recommend several organizations that could assist us with our study, and the American Center of Research was always at the top of that list, which is how I was first introduced to it. Consequently, I did much research and wrote many essays within the walls of ACOR’s library.

I was given the opportunity to be an intern at ACOR from August to October 2024, with tasks revolving around the library and helping the associate librarian, Samya Khalaf Kafafi.

One of the tasks that took the longest in my short stay was reorganizing the collection of rare books. This was an incredible experience, seeing and helping to classify some of the books that tell stories even by the outside of their covers, of how time and readers have treated them. I also believe I enjoyed it because my major focuses on conservation and restoring such materials, and seeing books that hold so much importance was an honor. We had to be careful regarding everything: handling the most crucial volumes, fixing some of the very loose spines so that they don’t become rubbed or lost, carefully maintaining the books, and moving them from one shelf to another while keeping intact everything within their covers, such as maps and even notes that had been left there by some of the first readers.

The kind librarian came up with the idea of displaying the book’s classification numbers in a way that did not require taping anything onto the books (which might damage the spine and covers) and would limit the abrasion that can occur when someone pulls a book from the shelf to see its title or number. The results were perfect, to say the least: the solution was to place a piece of paper with the classification number in the book so that it sticks out above the pages and covers. It took nearly two months to finish preparing the entire collection in this way, and the result was a mini private display of books that is not open to the public.

My second longest task was to check and organize the maps, which are also off limits to the public without permission. I had to be very careful and wear gloves while removing the huge sheets of maps in order to place them in the right spot. To make sure no edges of these large documents get damaged in the process, maps need to be handled in a specific manner.

Not only did I enjoy working with these materials, but the staff of the library are also incredibly sweet and helpful—they are always so nice and pleasant and have amazing patience while teaching new interns or simply answering inquiries, especially the kind associate librarian, Samya, who gives life to the library.

I am very grateful to have been given this opportunity. I have learned a lot, ranging from social skills to books and understanding their secrets, and far more. It was a fruitful three months’ experience, and I hope my short stay has helped in the never-ending tasks of the library.

Thank you kindly.

Dima Nafez Amin Harb is a recent graduate from the University of Jordan who was valedictorian of her major (cultural resources management and conservation). Ambitious and wishing to continue her education further, she has participated in such events as Working for the Future of Our Past workshops held by the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) in Germany, Egypt, and Germany, as well as the May 2023 ICOMOS workshop. Fluent in English and Arabic, Dima is now learning German. She is also a published artist.

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From August 1 to September 12, 2024, I had the fortunate opportunity to undertake an internship at the American Center of Research (ACOR) in Amman, Jordan. I worked with the National Cultural Heritage Property Database of The Kingdom of Jordan project, known informally as the National Inventory. While currently training to be a conservator, I have an educational background in archaeology, art history, and cultural heritage protection. The internship at ACOR provided me with a unique multidisciplinary experience in which I could blend and apply my interests in a practical manner.

The National Cultural Heritage Property Database of the Kingdom of Jordan project utilizes Axiell software as the basis for a centralized database of Jordan’s moveable cultural heritage. Axiell furthermore provides a digital repository that ensures records are retained in case a natural disaster or other such crisis impacts Jordan’s collections. My task was to incorporate conservation knowledge into the database and to assist with site assessments and recommendations.

During the course of the internship, the project team and I visited a number of museums and storehouses to conduct on-site assessments of their respective collections. Visits included excursions to As-Salt, Zarqa, Jerash, and Irbid. The project team would correlate collection survey data with physical locations. I would assess the general condition of artifacts and their physical settings. Through this, I learned about past conservation practices in museums and the unique challenges facing collections contemporarily (e.g., rising temperatures). Recommendations were then provided in a short report regarding measures that could be beneficial for individual collections.

I greatly enjoyed interacting with a variety of organic and inorganic artifacts on site. By visiting numerous collections, I saw an assortment of objects ranging from bronze weaponry to glass perfume vials, figurines, and intricately beaded jewelry. Mosaics are a particular favorite of mine, and Jordan is renowned for having a bounty of beautiful ones. Being able to view mosaic depictions of pomegranates, olives, or grapes and then walking outside to see those same trees and vines still growing in the vicinity bridged the past and present in a delightful way.

The chance to assist with cleaning and identifying ceramic fragments from Petra further made the internship a memorable experience. Revealing painted designs on the ceramic surfaces — which may have last been viewed hundreds of years ago — was a reminder of how remarkable working with cultural heritage materials can be.

I’ve learned about Jordan’s cultural heritage management and the variety of artifacts held in diverse collections. I’ve been fortunate to gain knowledge of the available tools used for preventive conservation through consultation with project stakeholders. Most critically, through the internship I have gained an insight into the growing contemporary importance of digital preservation and documentation techniques for movable cultural heritage objects. The length of the internship further permitted me to explore Amman and travel to Aqaba, Petra, Ajloun, and beyond during my six weeks. By interning with ACOR, I was able to experience Jordan in a new light and gain valuable experience for my future career path. I am grateful for the hospitality shown to me by the staff and fellows at ACOR.

Thank you for the opportunity.

Madeleine Tripp is an emerging objects conservator with a background in archaeology, art history, and heritage protection. She is currently undertaking the University of Melbourne’s Master of Cultural Materials Conservation program. With an anticipated graduation in late 2024, Madeleine aims to apply her conservation skills into continued archaeological and cultural heritage work.

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